subculture essay!

Investigate a specific case study relating to fandom or a subculture of your choice. Critically appraise the case study in relation to a range of theoretical perspectives studied within the module.
Your study should address how your chosen example offers insights into theories on fandom/subculture and audience perspectives generally. You are expected to relate the study to work undertaken on this module (e.g comparing and contrasting examples from those given in lectures and seminars)
Word count: 5,921
Subculture is a group of people despite belonging to a larger culture have another culture as well. Fandom is a form of subculture, as even though the fans within the fan group have a larger culture in which they belong to, they also have their subculture that they belong to which is their fandom. Subcultures subvert hegemonic ideologies, and their beliefs are always showcased via their image and behaviour. Moral panic when there is a threat to society usually follows a sub-culture, as the sub-culture identity is accompanied with hysteria.
Grunge is a genre of music, and with it comes a sub-culture due to its fans. Sub-culture is an alternative culture to the dominant culture within society, ‘During the 1950s, Albert Cohen and Walter Miller sought to supply the missing theoretical perspectives by tracing the continuities and breaks between dominant and subordinate value systems. Cohen stressed the compensatory function of the juvenile gang: working class adolescents who under-achieved at school joined gangs in their leisure time in order to develop alternative sources of self-esteem. In the gang, the core values of the straight world - sobriety, ambition, conformity, etc. - were replaced by their opposites: hedonism, defiance of authority and the quest for ‘kicks’ (Cohen, 1995)’. (Hebdige, 1987: 76)
Just like a sub-culture, grunge is an alternative culture, an alternative from the normal and ordinary. Grunge helped give belonging to teenagers in society that felt isolated, it gave comfort to teenagers who felt economic alienation supplemented with social alienation.
Grunge was an authentic genre which cared for the bands and the musicians, the ideologies and the belonging rather than money.
The ideology of grunge is going against the dominant hegemonic values of society. This is different to Muggelton’s research on post-subculture and identity as he found that post-subculture is not fixed, instead of resisting and apposing against the system they are using it to their advantage and choosing their own attitude and fashion where as grunge had its set ideology, rules and rituals.
In this essay I am going to research the fandom of Nirvana, focusing especially on the front man Kurt Cobain. Despite Kurt Cobain no longer even being alive and thus the band splitting up, the band still holds such a big fan group. I am going to look closely at the reason behind fandom and the substance gained from being a fan, before addressing other people’s fandom I decided to look into my own.
In my teenage years I was struggling with my own economic alienation and trying to piece together my own identity, I found music as such a comforting device to hold on to, from finding a way to express myself as well as gaining a sense of belonging. I used it as a well of rebelling against my parental as well as a way of helping me dealing with my own teenage angst.
I was able to identify myself through the music I liked, as well as helping me figure out who I was and forms opinions on the world. Fandom also started my social life, as the first time I went out was to a gig.
In researching fandom, I already had background knowledge of Nirvana fans as I had been one back in school and so were my friends so I had past experience on Nirvana fans and fans in general, as well as being one myself. I looked on the internet, not only on forums but also on official and non-official fan sites. There were a numerous websites that fans had constructed themselves with information and pictures they had gathered for the website.
I studied old press cuttings on interviews from Kurt and the band himself, as well as looking at old alternative music magazines.
Forums were the dominant medium in which I found my research, posting questions about their fandom as well as reading posts already there.
For primary research I carried out interviews with fans, as well as going on official Nirvana sites. I visited the official Nirvana fan club website and posted questions there as well as getting Nirvana fans to fill out questionnaires on their fandom.
The secondary research I used were existing case studies on fandom as well as unofficial websites, as well as websites constructed by fans.
The only problems I had during the research was fans not complying, acting too cool to answer my questions and wondering why they should even bother helping me.
This is actually a similar answer in which Kurt Cobain may have replied with, thus the fans have adopted the Kurt Cobain and Nirvana attitude. In interviews Kurt would reply to questions asking how it is anyone’s business but his own or simply being sarcastic and acting in a incompetent, foolish manner.
The internet is a forum which illustrates fan behaviour as the internet is a post-modern medium which makes finding out information more accessible, it is also used as a form of communicating with one another. It creates a place where people are able to network as it is an interactive medium. Trimer coined the term the ‘air port lounge’ which the internet is, it is an environment that is not cemented, it can also hold a place for fans whom have little commitment as well as fans who show the up most commitment in regards to their fandom. It is not only an advantage for the fans but also the bands themselves who can reach such a mass audience in such a simple easy manner.
On a fan site or a bands website you are able to access information from lyrics, to band reviews adding to your cultural capital, making you a level higher in your hierarchy and there for being a positive factor in your personal needs.
Personal connection is elevated via the internet, it gives such a sense of closeness to other fans, creating a community, Maffesoli studied the term ’neo-tribalism’ where a basic term is formed throughout fandom, where they gain personal needs that comes with being part of something, the advantages they get from belonging to a group, yet instead of having set rules and rituals, they are bought together through their similar lifestyles, interests and hobbies rather than their fundamental ideologies.
The internet is also a device in which fans can feel closer to the band.
Within forums the internet is also a medium which showcases distinction and discrimination, throughout my research it has come apparent that competition is very high between fans. There are clear cut boundaries within fandom that consists whether you’re a real fan, or who’s a better fan who would then gain praise and distinction and then gain self esteem from knowing lyrics to the songs, this would give them hierarchy and this would give them social status, despite it only being a shadow of cultural economy (fiske) yet it is not actually knowing anything about high culture, for example knowing who has just won the political election which would be classified as cultural economy, but within their group of fandom where the knowledge is self-acquired it would give them hierarchy.
Throughout my own fandom and researching Nirvana fans I saw how fans use their fandom and their knowledge gained through this to close the gap between them and society, this is what is known as an audiocat. This gave the fans self-esteem as their knowledge which is bringing them closer to society was self taught thus gaining the self-esteem through doing something yourself.
Authenticity is also made apparent via the internet. Boundaries are set within fandom, for example picking and chosing of whether you are a fan of something within your chosen fandom, for example ‘Smells like teen spirit’ being your favourite fan would make you less authentic as if you only know the more commercial songs, thus being hailed not a real fan. It would also lead to hierarchy, discrimination and distinction on when you became a Nirvana fan, the more authentic fans would have been with Nirvana at the start and after their most successful album ‘Nevermind’, rather than just liking their mainstream commercial album and work.
On asking fans what would consist a real nirvana fan, I had a various set of answers. Elen suggested ‘my boyfriend is a real fan, he was around when they first came out and he’s collected nirvana memorabilia ever since rather than getting into them years later although you could do that and still be a real fan’ (web 3) insinuating that it takes memorabilia and for to have been there when Nirvana had come out to be a real fan where as Louis thought ‘having one album’ (web 4) would consist of being a real fan.
‘fans discriminate fiercely: the boundaries between what falls within their fandom and what does not are sharply drawn. This is discrimination in the cultural sphere is mapped into distinctions in the social - the boundaries between the community of fans and the rest of the world are just as strongly marked and patrolled. Both sides of the boundary invest in the difference; mundane viewers wish to avoid what they see as a taint of fandom - ’I’m not really a fan, of course, but..’ on the other side of the line, fans may argue about what characteristics allow someone to cross it and become a true fan, but they are clearly agreed on existence of the line. Textual and social discrimination are part and parcel of the same cultural activity’ (fisk 1992: 35)
The internet gives fans a way of choosing their level of fandom in post-subculture the internet can host fans which then can fall into a category of being a tourist or a traveller within what has been coined as the supermarket of style by Polhermos.
The tourist and traveller terms were researched and given the name by Muggleton, and the tourist means they can play around with the conventions and boundaries of being a fan, whom claim you do not have to have every C.D to b a real fan where as the traveller would gain social status and thus esteem for having every C.D and knowing every lyric.
The difference between a tourist and a traveller is the tourist is more authentic, tourists seek authenticity which would then lead to distinction and discrimination, yet the tourist is aware of the post-modern take on fandom and embraced it.
It is down to the internet that it is hard to pigeon hole a sub-culture, despite it pushing and blurring boundaries it is such a vital medium in strengthening subcultures and fandom.
The internet is also a place to talk about your specific band, a social place where you can express your interest with like-minded people and in doing so feel a sense of belonging and gain social and self-esteem.
Identity is also very important within using the internet as a medium, it allows people to create many different identities, the supermarket of style is the accessibility you have from the internet it thus creates and supplements identity changes.
It is fundamental for niche audiences, and people searching online type in specific searches so they usually stay within their chosen net-work this is evident in Hodkinson’s research on the internet communication and sub-cultural boundaries, where it looks into the post-modernity of the internet. It also became apparent that the Goth subculture that he studied was similar to the grunge subculture in how they now use the internet.
Through my findings on asking questions regarding the internet, fans commented that whilst they were on Nirvana websites and fan websites they would use hyperlinks to go to band merchandise, web spaces that hold Nirvana’s lyrics and other texts within Nirvana fandom.
The main use for them using the internet was for social networking, not only was it a way of making friends through their passion of Kurt Cobain and Nirvana but friendships were also constructed outside of cyber space ‘me and my best friend bounded over Nirvana. He introduced me to AIC, I introduced him to Nirvana and Nirvana became both of our favourite band. We had the same bleak outlook on life. of course then he got into a different scene, we drifted apart’ (web 9) yet it was a vital factor in communicating in regards to arranging to meet up for gigs.
In Thornton’s studies he says the media is vital distribution medium in which fans can showcase their knowledge on their fandom.
The internet helps to supplement subculture as well as it does supplant it due to the blurring of boundaries, it also challenges Hebdige’s theory of his ideology of fandom being about going against the system as sub-culture which the internet is an important medium within is not going against the system, it actually supplements it.
There are various other mediums used by fans, magazines are used to gain knowledge which would then be talked about socially, which would lead to distinction and discrimination and in doing so creating hierarchy. Gigs are also advertised within magazines which would build on the social side of fandom.
Interviews pushed by the magazine interviewing Nirvana would add to cultural capital, it would also give information on the band adding to your social status.
Gigs would be a major part in fandom, adding to authenticity of your fandom, throughout my research I did not actually come across anybody who had actually seen Nirvana yet many of the fans like myself have seen the Foo Fighters and thought of Nirvana whilst watching Dave Grohl. Some fans stressed how they would not of actually liked to of met Kurt Cobain himself due to fear of disappointment, as a star as a constructed persona which could then lead to meeting the star when he is not playing out his persona which would ruin your illusion on your fandom.
There have been many books published on Kurt Cobain and Nirvana, Autobiographies and biographies on the band. Entitled ‘Kurt Cobain: the journals’ which was written by Kurt himself which was filled with drawings and thoughts on fame, he talks about rock history and his drug abuse. On reading reviews it was sparked that only a ‘real’ Nirvana fan should read this the reader would need background information about Nirvana for his thoughts to make sense, this would spark hierarchy and also self-esteem gained if on reading his journals you would understand what was happening at that date with the band because it is not written within his journals.
This would add authenticity within fandom, as reading his journals would be primary information; it would give the fans a sense of closeness.
Merchandise is a way of capitalising on existing money making medium. Nirvana and Kurt has a vast variety of merchandise, from books to t-shirts.
Textual productivity was also valid in the sense of how it made a lot of the fans themselves want to pick up a guitar and start their own band.
Kurt Cobain
Kurt Cobain identity was not stereotypical of his gender, he challenged hegemonic ideologies through in the way that he would dress, instead of looking and acting like a stereotypical male he was quite feminine, this is evident in television appearances and also what he would wear to do his gigs. Kurt often wore eye liner and dresses, going against the dominant masculine men that he was not a fan of in the music industry, in the rock industry it was dominated by masculine men who would slate and disrespect women, he felt from a young age that women were repressed, disrespected and not counted for, he did not want to be another rock star who was going to treat women in such a way.
For a male to be wearing eye liner and a dress would have caused moral panic within society, as it would challenge hegemonic ideology through gender, this is also visual in David Bowie’s fragmented persona, Frith and Hebdige studied Bowie, the ideologies that came out of these studies were that due to them going against the dominant ideology that there is actually narcissism within the ways boys looked and played around with the way that they were excepted to look by society.
On being asked whether Kurt’s gender and non-stereotypical masculinity played a large factor in your fandom, he replied with ‘uhhh… without you mentioning it, I never would of thought it. But actually, yeah. It wasn’t like the reason I liked them or anything, but that aspect was one of the things I respected about him. As a result, when I played in this band for a school play (big rock at candy’s mountain) I wore a dress. At the time I truly didn’t relate to traditional masculinity at all and I saw Kurt’s stance as both a rebellion and a superior form of masculinity. To me it was the difference between the “toughen up, derp!” kind of brainless, soulless, heartless masculinity and a lifestyle that involves having emotions’ (web 8)
He did not want to be a sexist icon like the other males within the music industry. In asking John what first attracted him to Kurt Cobain, he replied with ‘as an adolescent I was confused about who I was meant to be in the sense of gender and sexuality and I found this band with a front singer with such sadness whilst wearing a dress and I latched on to it, I was not like everybody else but never had the confidence to be myself’ (web 1) personal needs is a big reason throughout the research in how people first sought out Nirvana, John also stated that Kurt’s non-stereotypical view of masculinity was a key aspect in his fandom ‘I believe it is why Nirvana became my favourite band and why Kurt was my idol, I saw myself him in so much and his music became the background music to my life at that time when I was very confused’ (web 2)
By wearing a dress and eye liner it represented that he could be as feminism as he wanted, he was often abused mentally and physically at school for not being the stereotypical boy, and through his music he had a new found freedom on expressing himself due to him being so isolated and repressed for being himself through his childhood, that now he could be whatever he wanted to be, he could represent difference and challenge the hegemonic values of society that had haunted him for being different from his school years. By a male wearing male up which is a feminine ritual he was rebelling against the system, it was a gesture of defiance and a signature ritual in the issue that he is not going to conform, or be how society thinks he should be. Kurt was very androgynous, he did not want to be seen as male or as a female but he wanted to be counted as a person, he thought that gender played a small part within his ideology.
Kurt went on to help other people create their own identity, ‘I’d be lying if I said that I didn’t want to look like Kurt Cobain, maybe that’s why I grew my hair long, maybe not. Either way I don’t go out of my way to look like him, yet they affected me in some decisions I wouldn’t of done otherwise’ (web 10)
Kurt was also an enigma in regards to his sexuality; he was forever changing his answer to whether he was gay, straight or bisexual. Another issue that would spark questions on his sexuality would be him wearing a dress, which is seen as feminine action. His lyrics would be pro-gay which would spark questioning into his sexuality, but the reason behind this was not to spark questions towards his own sexuality but to publicise the fact that there is nothing wrong with being gay. Through Kurt’s childhood he found it difficult to interact with his male peers, as being so different from them apart from one boy who was gay, Kurt disagreed with the way that his friend was treated just for being gay and his mother even stopped him hanging round with this boy. He then found himself making friends with girls and there for got the experience and was able to witness how females were treated unequally, repressed and with no respect this went on to be a core factor in him constructing his own identity in later years.
What becomes apparent in his childhood is the depth of alienation he felt, for not being stereotypical, for having different views and beliefs, for being slightly feminine, he was even targeted against for liking art and for wanting to do something with his life instead of wanting to go into the same trade as his father like most of his peers at school.
Kurt Cobain’s parents also broke up when he was ten, adding to another level of his alienation, he strived and wanted so badly a normal family with a mum and dad like all of his peers, another dominant ideology that had been forced on him, that to be a family it does consist of a married mother and father. He found this lack another wedge between him and his peers and when his parents finally divorced he became very much isolated further than he was before and more than anything became anti-social. In Nirvana’s song ‘serve the servants’ the effect of the divorce becomes apparent in his lyrics ‘that legendary divorce is such a bore’ another lyric from the same song is ‘I tried hard to have a father but instead I had a dad’ and this links back to the lack of relationship him and his father had, due to his dad being a stereotypical masculine man that was unable to showcase any love or affection to his son, Kurt never really established a relationship between his dad.
In discovering music, semiotic productivity came about in the way that he reacted towards hearing the music, the music was relevant to him and he was able to make the music mean something to him; Kurt found belonging, despite his alienation, isolation, sadness and negativity he found music as such a positive comfort throughout his adolescence. He started listening to punk music with all the rebellious ideology; he found this genre fit in with how he felt socially and politically. The sensibility of punk was gaining respect for yourself despite your class, gender or sexuality stance. Punk created equality for women and it was rebelling against the system, views in which Kurt believed in and found a place within the punk genre through listening to bands such as the sex pistols. Just as Kurt was not stereotypically masculine the punk music he was listening to was challenging hegemonic sensibility.
This is similar to Louis’ reason on why he liked Nirvana in the first place ‘I saw a live video of Nirvana when I was 14 and he (Kurt) jumped into the crowd and started hitting a security guard with his guitar, I thought that was pretty cool’ (web 6)
The aggression that was seen throughout punk, even as far as the way the audience would act at gigs, as it was the punk movement who started the mosh pit was an out let for all of Kurt’s angst. Punk celebrated different and ugliness something Kurt had dealt with his whole life.
He found such reassurance through punk that there were other people battling with the dominant ideologies.
This is made apparent in the case study that Hebdige and Fiske did on punk, with the key force and ideologies of punk fans being a punk fan was due to finding a place for alternative identity, punk was an alternative identity from social dominance, a way of belonging for people who did not fit into the hegemonic values of society and this is apparent in Kurt’s fandom of punk.
Even through Kurt’s own fandom, came textual productivity when he then created his own band and wrote his own lyrics due to being inspired by other peoples lyrics and music.
All of Kurt’s feelings that are stated within books and interviews are apparent through his lyrics, they reflect his feelings and experiences.
The song ‘come as you are’ denotes trying to fit in, pretending to be something you are not and doing something else because somebody else is doing it, this reflects him not fitting in and being judged for being different. Lyrics in the song such as ‘no, I don’t have a gun’ denotes that he has nothing to hide and he is not going to judge you so do not be something you are not.
Nirvana’s song ‘dumb’ starts with the lyrics ‘I’m not like them but I can pretend’ which is another reference to trying to act like something he is not, to pretend to be something just so he can fit in with society, his alienation from his peers and society is evident throughout all his music, in lyrics such as the one’s in the song ‘Lithium’ where he sings ‘I’m so happy ‘cause today I found my friends, they’re in my head’ which connotes the lack of friends he had as a child due to being so anti-social.
‘Smells like teen spirit’ was the biggest rock anthem in the 90s, it reflected the society in which surrounded Kurt, even the title connotes an essence of ‘generation X’ it sings about his generation which was fuelled by anger, boredom and cynicism.
From finding punk as a way of Kurt belonging he then tunnelled his thoughts and feelings into his own lyrics which would of given everything Kurt got from punk to his own fans.
There are various links to other texts, after the death of Kurt Cobain the members went on to form other bands, Dave Grohl the drummer of Nirvana went on to form the very successful band the ‘Foo Fighters’, throughout the research on Nirvana fandom it became clear that most Nirvana fans had come to be a ‘Foo Fighters’ fan, the ideology between the two bands is consistent which would give fans authenticity from going on to be a ‘Foo fighters’ fan and therefore remaining a Dave Grohl fan. Elen’s fandom of Nirvana came secondary to that of her fandom for the foo fighters ‘I first heard Nirvana on the ‘Kerrang!’ channel… think it was ‘smells like teen spirit.’ I was into rock music so it was exactly the stuff I was already into, plus Kurt was pretty nice and I liked that Dave Grohl was in the band as I was a fan of the ‘Foo Fighters’ anyway’ (web 5)
It is clear that fans are productive; Throughout the research it became apparent that Nirvana and Kurt influenced his fans to different music genres ‘it got me into punk rock’ (web 7) create music themselves, as well as even giving them influence on other creative subjects ‘I did an a-level art project on Kurt’s artwork’ (web 8) on being asked whether he has influenced your life in anyway.
‘they influence my music writing style, they don’t influence my lyrics so much. They influence what music I listen to. They’ve influenced things outside my music tastes and writing as well. I’m not of a liberal person now due to reading about Kurt’s pro-choice stance on almost everything. I look at drugs in a different way too, I understand the attraction and the addiction better without having to take them myself. They play a role in my life, a small one yes, but I look at a lot of things different because of it. People, the world, music.’ (web 11)
Grunge like every other subculture has iconography, just like the research Hebdige and Fiske did on punk, grunge had an ironic attitude with self-awareness and a strong ‘do it yourself’ ethnic, clothing advocated its own construction. The uniform of grunge gave the specific genre a visual gesture, not only through the laid back attitude, but ideology was apparent through clothes, make-up and hair styles; ‘these choices contain a whole range of messages which are transmitted through the finely graded distinctions of a number of interlocking sets - class and status, self-image and attractiveness, etc’ (Hebdige 1987: 101)
Ripped jeans were a vital part in there grunge look, this signifies anti-establishment and anti-commodity and therefore connoting anti-capitalism through anarchy through destroying a pair of jeans. The tearing of jeans also signifies the ripping up of the establishment, this is very similar to the uniform of the punk, the ‘do it yourself’ attitude and tearing of the clothes to create new meanings.
It was also very important not to drip your jeans too much in the fear of looking like you are trying too hard, trying to look to constructed in a genre where the ideology was about not caring about the way that you looked. The whole grunge look as well as the music was meant to be authentic, inexpensive and carefree which reflected the ideology.
Band t-shirts were part of the grunge uniform, as well as plain simple t-shirts and clothing, the whole look was inexpensive and it meant to reflect this, no designer or labelled clothes were to be worn. Drawing on t-shirts and also flannel t-shirts were vital in creating the grunge look. The grunge uniform for girls was very similar, very little make up which would make them more androgynous which would connote not trying to be a male or a woman but more wanting to be counted as a person, despite gender. Girls would also wear ripped jeans, band t-shirts and aim for inexpensive look, it was all constructed in thus to look grunge, the inexpensive thrown together look was fabricated ‘it stands apart - a visible construction, a loaded choice. It directs attention to itself; it gives itself to be read’ (Hebodige 1987: 101)
Grunge was a sub-culture was a sub-culture that welcomed girls, O’Brien studied how girls were involved within the punk genre, despite at the time in the 70s girls were still being ridiculed and treated unfairly, punk like grunge were something they could be apart of away from the dominant culture.
Throughout O’Briens findings it concludes that there are many benefits for a female within a sub-culture, it gave them a way in which they could create an identity, it was used as a vice in which to not only be different and accepted but to visually showcase difference. It also sent a strong message that women do mattered in music, and therefore mattered in society.
Grunge gave women a way in which to rebel, as they rebelled against the way society thinks they should dress and behave. Instead of dressing like stereotypically how society expects girls to, grunge gave them an alternative identity, thus giving them a chance to feel and be more liberal.
It was not possible to broadly categorise the profile of the fan base as the fan base as a whole was made up from the ages of thirteen to thirty, from fans who had been around when Nirvana were actually around at their time to fans who had heard them a few years ago, yet the fandom started in their early teens, where rebellion and not fitting in was already evident. The same also applied to gender, there was a mix of boys and girls of whom were fans of Nirvana. The fans I questioned were white and straight and from working class families which is also evident in the studies on punk fandom and thus the creation of sub-culture itself.
On reflecting on individuals within the overall profiles the conclusion that became apparent was the reason for fandom throughout the study was not only their fandom of nirvana, but what they got from being part of a community who shared an interest. It helped fans create identity ‘at the age of 15, I didn’t really fit in at school, I don’t know why so I isolated myself and music became my friend, on finding nirvana I bought a nirvana t-shirt and to my amazement a boy came up to me in school and started talking about Nirvana, this was the first time I had socially been interactive and we became good friends after that, without the nirvana t-shirt, I would have been sitting on my own at lunch’ (web 12) this is also visible in the case study Stevenson did on Bowie fans, on how relationships were started due to being fans of Bowies, it gave them a start in which to form friendships due to their common liking of their star.
To summarise the research in addressing fandom, it became apparent that fans were the most identifiable and visual audiences. Fans are an active audience, thus the uses and gratification theory, fans use the media and use fandom to their advantage, forming something that has meaning to the individual and there for gained and benefited from their fandom.
‘the literature on fandom is haunted by images of deviance. The fan is consistently characterized (referencing the terms origins) as a potential fanatic. This means that fandom is seen as excessive, bordering on deranged, behaviour’ (Jenson 1992: 9)
Despite being stereotyped as being unhealthy, fandom has given comfort to so many people. Fandom not only comes from the liking of the text but also from a problematic social existence.
Rebellion was also a key factor, fandom gave fans something in which to use to rebel. Fans used their fandom to form their identity in regards to dress, attitude and ideology.
‘I suggest here that these two images of fans are based in an implicit critique of modern life. Fandom is seen as a psychological symptom of a presumed social dysfunction; the two fan types are based in an unacknowledged critique of modernity. Once fans are characterised as deviant, they can be treated as disreputable, even dangerous ‘others’ (Jenson 1992: 9)
































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